Most contemporary Islamic thinkers and apologists claim that every war fought by the Prophet Muhammad during his lifetime was purely “defensive.” According to them, he took up arms only after being attacked. This claim, however, is less a product of the historical record than of a modern political effort to present Islam as a “peaceful” religion. Especially at a time when people across the world are fearful and alarmed by Islamist militancy, many Islamists promote such falsehoods and propaganda in order to present themselves as representatives of peace.
In fact, an examination of the classical sira (biographical) and maghazi (military campaign) literature reveals a very different picture. The historical record shows that a large proportion of the military expeditions led or ordered by Muhammad were offensive in character. From attacks on Qurayshi commercial caravans after the migration to Medina to surprise raids against various tribes, these operations formed part of a calculated strategy to expand the influence of the Islamic state and weaken its opponents. The following sermon clip features Abdullah bin Abdur Razzaq stating that Muhammad began taking the initiative in military attacks very soon after arriving in Medina.
A well-established principle within classical Islamic scholarship is that while “sahih” (authentic) hadith are treated as strictly necessary for deriving Sharia rulings or matters of creed, the standard applied to historical events and sira reports is more relaxed. According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal and many other prominent jurists and hadith scholars, even “da’if” (weak) reports may be considered usable information in accounts of history and warfare [1]. The maghazi works associated with pioneers of sira-writing such as Ibn Ishaq, Ibn Sa’d, and al-Waqidi belong to this historical tradition and preserve detailed accounts of warfare [2].
Apologists often try to hide these classical historical materials behind modern debates over “sahih” and “da’if.” But the historical fact remains that these sira works are among the principal sources for Muhammad’s life. This list has therefore been compiled from the early material preserved in the Qur’an, tafsir, hadith, sira, and maghazi literature. To preserve the integrity of the evidence and prevent the distortion created by the claim that all of Muhammad’s wars were merely “defensive,” the major campaigns are included here in chronological form. Taken together, they show that Muhammad’s jihad was not limited to self-defence; it also functioned as the expansion of a new political and religious power.
Muhammad’s Wars, Military Expeditions, Sieges, Targeted Killings, and Coercive Actions: A Comprehensive Chronology
1–11 AH after the Hijra: a source-based table of ghazwas, sariyyas, military pursuits, sieges, assassinations, punitive expeditions, destruction of religious sites, and tax/allegiance agreements
Terminology: In conventional sira terminology, an expedition personally joined by Muhammad is called a ghazwa; a force sent under an appointed commander is generally called a sariyya or ba’th. Not every ghazwa involved fighting, and not every sariyya was sent for the purpose of combat. Early authors do not give identical totals: Ibn Ishaq counts 26 ghazwas; a report from Zayd ibn Arqam in Sahih al-Bukhari gives 19; sariyyas number roughly 70. The differences result from how events are combined or separated and from differing definitions of what counts as an “expedition.”
Dates: Hijri months are primary. Gregorian dates are approximate; where early sources differ over month or year, that disagreement is noted. Modern calendar conversions are not treated as more certain than the early narratives themselves.
Nature: “Initiated attack” means that a force advanced first from Medina toward an opponent’s territory, caravan, or target; it is not by itself a moral judgment. “Counter-defence” means repelling a direct attack or pursuing attackers; “reprisal/punishment” means a response to a prior event; “military pressure/agreement” means deployment, siege, or tax agreement without a major battle; “disputed” means that the core account depends on weak or disconnected transmission.
Evidence level: High = the core event is attested in the Qur’an or sahih hadith; Medium = a well-known early sira/maghazi report without a fully sahih chain; Weak/Disputed = details preserved through al-Waqidi, disconnected chains, or later histories whose reliability has been challenged by hadith critics.
Initiated attack
Counter-defence
Reprisal/Punishment
Military pressure/Agreement
Disputed report
| № | Date | Event | Target/Location | Nature | Event, Outcome, Evidence, and Source Criticism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ramadan 1 AH March 623 CE approx. |
Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib’s Sariyya to Sayf al-Bahr | al-‘Is coast; Abu Jahl’s Meccan force/caravan | Initiated | Thirty Muhajir cavalrymen encountered a force of roughly three hundred under Abu Jahl. Both sides formed up for battle, but Majdi ibn ‘Amr al-Juhani, an ally of both parties, intervened and prevented fighting. It is therefore more accurate to describe this not as a completed “caravan raid” but as the first armed attempt to interdict the caravan route. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, 1/595–596 (Shamela); Islamweb: Ghazwas and sariyyas before Badr. |
| 2 | Shawwal 1 AH April 623 approx. |
Ubayda ibn al-Harith’s Sariyya to Rabigh | Thaniyyat al-Murra/Rabigh; Qurayshi force | Initiated | A group of 60 or 80 Muhajirs encountered a much larger Qurayshi force. No full battle occurred; the sira describes an arrow fired by Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas as “the first arrow in Islam.” Miqdad and Utba ibn Ghazwan left the Qurayshi side and joined the Muslims. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, 1/591; same work, 1/595. |
| 3 | Dhu al-Qa’da 1 AH May 623 approx. |
Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas’s Sariyya to al-Kharrar | al-Kharrar; Qurayshi caravan | Initiated | About twenty Muhajirs were sent to wait for a caravan; they travelled on foot by night and hid by day. The caravan had passed a day earlier, so no clash occurred. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Buwwat–Ushayra–Kharrar section; Islamweb: Expeditions before Badr. |
| 4 | Safar 2 AH August 623 approx. |
Ghazwa of Waddan/al-Abwa | Qurayshi route and Banu Damra | Initiated | Muhammad’s first ghazwa. In Ibn Ishaq’s wording, the targets were Quraysh and Banu Damra; no battle occurred. The force returned after concluding a non-aggression/alliance agreement with Makhshi ibn ‘Amr, leader of Banu Damra. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, 1/591; Islamweb: The first ghazwa. |
| 5 | Rabi al-Awwal 2 AH September/October 623 approx. |
Ghazwa of Buwwat | Caravan of Umayya ibn Khalaf; Radwa region | Initiated | Muhammad went with about 200 men to intercept a Qurayshi caravan guarded by about 100 men and carrying roughly 2,500 camels. The caravan was not found and no battle occurred. This was part of continuing economic pressure on Mecca’s Syrian trade route. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, 1/598; al-Kamil, Islamweb. |
| 6 | Rabi al-Awwal 2 AH 623 approx. |
Safwan/Badr al-Ula | Raiding party of Kurz ibn Jabir | Counter-pursuit | This was not an attack on a “Safwan caravan.” Kurz ibn Jabir raided Medina’s grazing grounds and drove off livestock; Muhammad pursued him as far as the valley of Safwan but did not catch him. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, 1/601; Islamweb. |
| 7 | Jumada al-Ula/Akhira 2 AH November–December 623 approx. |
Ghazwa of Dhu al-Ushayra | Yanbu region; Qurayshi caravan bound for Syria | Initiated | A force set out to intercept the Qurayshi caravan heading to Syria, but it had already passed. Agreements were made with Banu Mudlij and their Banu Damra allies. On its return journey, this same caravan later became the immediate target that led to Badr. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, 1/598–600; Islamweb. |
| 8 | Rajab 2 AH January 624 approx. |
Sariyya of Nakhla | Qurayshi caravan of Amr ibn al-Hadrami | Initiated | Abdullah ibn Jahsh’s group received written orders to go to Nakhla and gather intelligence on Quraysh. While uncertain whether the sacred month had ended, they attacked, killed Amr, captured two men, and seized the caravan. On their return Muhammad initially said that he had not ordered fighting in the sacred month and suspended acceptance of the goods and captives; Qur’an 2:217 was revealed later. It is therefore wrong to say that the verse directly ordered the killing: it calls fighting in the sacred month “a grave offence” while describing the opponents’ persecution as still graver. Evidence: High/MediumSources: Islamweb sira account; al-Muntazam, 3/92–93; Qur’an 2:217. |
| 9 | 17 Ramadan 2 AH 13 March 624 approx. |
Battle of Badr | Abu Sufyan’s caravan and the Meccan relief army | Initiated → battle | The initial objective was the large caravan returning from Syria. Abu Sufyan escaped by changing route, but a force of about one thousand under Abu Jahl advanced; the Muslims numbered about 313. In the battle, 14 Muslims and about 70 Qurayshis were killed, while roughly 70 Qurayshis were captured—the conventional sira figures. Rules concerning ransom/release of prisoners and distribution of booty were established afterward; Surat al-Anfal is the principal Qur’anic text connected to the event. Evidence: HighSources: Ibn Hisham: beginning of the Badr section; Surat al-Anfal. |
| 10 | Shawwal 2 AH April/May 624 approx. |
Banu Sulaym: Ghazwa of al-Kudr | Banu Sulaym/Ghatafan; al-Kudr | Pre-emptive attack | After Badr, Muhammad led about 200 men after receiving reports that Banu Sulaym were gathering. The opponents withdrew; sira sources report the seizure of about 500 camels, one fifth of which was set aside before the remainder was divided among the fighters. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham’s contents: “Banu Sulaym at al-Kudr”; Ibn Ishaq’s ghazwa list quoted by IslamQA. |
| 11 | Shawwal 2 AH April/May 624 approx. |
Siege and Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa | Banu Qaynuqa of Medina | Siege/Expulsion | After Badr, the tribe’s fortifications were besieged for about fifteen days on accusations of treaty violation. After surrender, Abdullah ibn Ubayy’s intervention resulted in the men being expelled from Medina rather than killed; weapons and substantial property passed under Muslim control. The sira contains the story of a Muslim woman’s clothing being pulled up in the market and a retaliatory killing, but the full account is not established by a chain meeting sahih-hadith standards. Evidence: MediumSource: Ibn Hisham, 2/47. |
| 12 | 2 AH, after Badr 624 approx. |
Report of the Killing of Abu Afak | Elderly poet of Banu Amr ibn Awf | Disputed | In the maghazi tradition of al-Waqidi and Ibn Sa’d, Salim ibn Umayr is said to have killed the sleeping Abu Afak at night after Badr because of hostile poetry/incitement. His age is even given as “120 years.” But no established sahih chain exists for the episode; IslamQA likewise says that “no reliable chain is known.” The episode can therefore be retained as a sira report, not as certain history. Evidence: WeakSources: Supplementary sariyya section in Ibn Hisham; IslamQA: Chain for the Abu Afak report. |
| 13 | Ramadan 2 AH, after Badr 624 approx. |
Report of the Killing of Asma bint Marwan | Female poet of Banu Khatma | Disputed | The narrative says that Umayr ibn Adi entered her house at night, moved aside a nursing infant, and killed her with a sword; Muhammad later approved the act. The core chain, however, runs through al-Waqidi, whom major hadith critics regarded as abandoned/unreliable, and IslamQA rejects the chain as “ruined.” The frequently repeated dramatic details are therefore not secure. Evidence: Extremely weakSources: Islamweb: the commonly circulated account; IslamQA: isnad criticism; Shamela. |
| 14 | Dhu al-Hijja 2 AH May/June 624 approx. |
Ghazwa of al-Sawiq | Raiding force of Abu Sufyan | Counter-pursuit | Abu Sufyan, having sworn revenge for Badr, raided the outskirts of Medina, burned date palms, and killed two Ansar. Muhammad pursued the raiders; while fleeing, they dropped sacks of sawiq to lighten their loads, giving the expedition its name. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham contents; Ghazwa list. |
| 15 | Muharram 3 AH July/August 624 approx. |
Ghazwa of Dhu Amr/Ghatafan | Banu Tha’laba and Banu Muharib; Najd | Pre-emptive expedition | About 450 men set out after reports that the tribes were gathering for an attack on Medina. The opponents withdrew into the mountains and no major battle occurred. Some versions contain the story of Dathur/Ghawrath taking Muhammad’s sword and attempting to kill him; that detail appears in variant forms. Evidence: MediumSource: Ibn Hisham: Dhu Amr section. |
| 16 | Rabi al-Akhir 3 AH 624 approx. |
Ghazwa of Buhran | Banu Sulaym; mining region of the Hijaz | Expedition | A force went against Banu Sulaym in the Buhran/Bahran region and returned after remaining outside Medina for roughly two months without a major clash. Ibn Ishaq counts this expedition separately even though it was absent from the original list being corrected. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Ishaq’s list as quoted by IslamQA; Ibn Hisham contents. |
| 17 | Jumada al-Akhira 3 AH November 624 approx. |
Sariyya of al-Qarada | Qurayshi caravan heading toward Iraq | Caravan attack | A caravan led by Safwan ibn Umayya avoided the Syrian route and took the road toward Iraq. Zayd ibn Haritha’s force attacked at Qarada and seized the merchandise; the caravan leaders escaped. Sira calculations value the goods at one hundred thousand dirhams, a figure dependent on maghazi sources. Evidence: MediumSource: Ibn Hisham, 2/50. |
| 18 | Rabi al-Awwal 3 AH approx. August/September 624 |
Killing of Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf | Jewish poet of Medina and leader associated with Banu Nadir | Targeted killing | In Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad asks who will kill Ka’b because he had “hurt Allah and His Messenger.” Muhammad ibn Maslama receives permission to speak deceptively, lures Ka’b out of his fortress at night, and the group kills him. The sira accuses Ka’b of elegies for those killed at Badr, encouraging Quraysh in Mecca, and composing sexualized poetry about Muslim women; the sahih hadith directly preserves the assassination method. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4037; Ibn Hisham, 2/51; Islamweb. |
| 19 | 7 Shawwal 3 AH March 625 approx. |
Battle of Uhud | Abu Sufyan’s Meccan army; Uhud | Defence | About 3,000 Meccans came near Medina seeking revenge for Badr. Muhammad set out with roughly 1,000 men, but about 300 followers of Abdullah ibn Ubayy withdrew. After the archers abandoned their assigned position, the Muslim force suffered a major reversal; Muhammad was wounded and about 70 Muslims, including Hamza, were killed. Qur’an 3:121–180 comments on the event. Evidence: HighSources: Ibn Hisham, from 2/60; Qur’an 3:121–180. |
| 20 | 8 Shawwal 3 AH Day after Uhud |
Ghazwa of Hamra al-Asad | Retreating Meccan army | Pursuit/Show of force | Fearing that the Meccans might return and attack Medina again after Uhud, Muhammad pursued them as far as Hamra al-Asad with wounded fighters. No renewed battle occurred. The operation demonstrated immediate defensive capacity after defeat. Evidence: High/MediumSources: Qur’an 3:172–174; Ibn Hisham, post-Uhud section. |
| 21 | Muharram 4 AH June/July 625 approx. |
Abu Salama’s Sariyya to Qatan | Banu Asad; Qatan | Pre-emptive suppression | About 150 men were sent after reports that Banu Asad, under Tulayha and Salama ibn Khuwaylid, were gathering forces to attack Medina. The sudden expedition dispersed the opponents, and the force returned with captured camels and goats. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Sa’d, al-Tabaqat al-Kubra, sariyya section; Shamela bibliographic entry. |
| 22 | Muharram 4 AH June/July 625 approx. |
Expedition of Abdullah ibn Unays | Khalid ibn Sufyan al-Hudhali; Urana | Targeted killing | A lone operative was sent after reports that Khalid was gathering people to attack Medina. Abdullah concealed his identity, approached him, and killed him. Some maghazi/musnad versions include the detail that his head was cut off and brought back; not all versions are equally strong. The story of a staff given by Muhammad is also narrated in Musnad Ahmad. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham’s contents, where the event is listed; Musnad Ahmad, report of Abdullah ibn Unays. |
| 23 | Safar 4 AH July/August 625 approx. |
al-Raji Massacre | Group associated with Hudhayl; al-Raji | Muslim party attacked | Several Muslims were lured away under the pretext of being requested as religious teachers and then betrayed to Banu Lihyan. Most were killed; Khubayb ibn Adi and Zayd ibn al-Dathinna were captured, sold in Mecca, and later killed. This was an attack on a Muslim party sent out from Medina; the later Banu Lihyan expedition had this episode as its retaliatory background. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Maghazi; Ibn Hisham contents: Yawm al-Raji. |
| 24 | Safar 4 AH 625 approx. |
Bi’r Ma’una Massacre | Banu Amir/Ri’l, Dhakwan, and Usayya | Muslim party attacked | About 70 men sent as Qur’an teachers/preachers were attacked at Bi’r Ma’una and nearly all were killed. Amir ibn Fuhayra was killed; Ka’b ibn Zayd survived despite being wounded. Sahih al-Bukhari records that Muhammad performed qunut for a month, invoking curses against the attacking tribes. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4090–4096; Ibn Hisham contents. |
| 25 | Rabi al-Awwal 4 AH August 625 approx. |
Siege and Expulsion of Banu Nadir | Banu Nadir of Medina | Siege/Expulsion | The principal early sira account states that when Muhammad came seeking assistance with blood-money, members of the tribe planned to kill him by dropping a stone from a roof. A separate/weaker strand involving an invitation to debate with thirty men and Gabriel’s warning is sometimes conflated with this account. Date palms were cut and burned during the siege; Qur’an 59:5 mentions this. The tribe departed with whatever property their camels could carry other than weapons, while the land and orchards came under Muhammad’s control as fay’. Evidence: High/MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, 2/190; Qur’an 59:2–7. |
| 26 | 4 AH approx. | Failed Mission to Kill Abu Sufyan | Mecca; Amr ibn Umayya al-Damri | Covert operation | The sira says that after a Bedouin allegedly sent by Abu Sufyan to assassinate Muhammad in Medina was captured, Amr ibn Umayya and Salama ibn Aslam were sent in retaliation. The plan failed; on the return journey Amr became involved in several violent incidents and captured a man. The precise year and details are disputed. Evidence: Medium/Disputed detailsSources: Ibn Hisham, Sira, chapter on “Sending Amr ibn Umayya against Abu Sufyan”; Shamela contents. |
| 27 | 4/5/7 AH — date disputed | Ghazwa of Dhat al-Riqa | Banu Muharib and Banu Tha’laba of Ghatafan; Najd | Pre-emptive expedition | An expedition went into Najd after reports of an enemy gathering. No major battle occurred; the two sides faced one another and withdrew. Several reports of the prayer of fear are associated with this expedition. Ibn Ishaq places it in 4 AH, but evidence connected to al-Bukhari gives a strong argument for dating it after Khaybar in 7 AH because Abu Musa al-Ash’ari participated. Event: High; date uncertainSources: IslamQA: Dating dispute; Ibn Hisham, Dhat al-Riqa section. |
| 28 | Sha’ban 4 AH January 626 approx. |
Badr al-Maw’id / Second Badr | Announced confrontation with Abu Sufyan | Show of force | Following the declaration at the end of Uhud that the parties would meet at Badr the next year, the Muslim force waited there for eight days and traded. Abu Sufyan set out with a force but turned back, citing drought. No battle occurred, and both sides used the episode in political propaganda. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Badr al-Akhira section; Shamela contents. |
| 29 | Rabi al-Awwal 5 AH August/September 626 approx. |
Ghazwa of Dumat al-Jandal | Trade route of northern Arabia | Long-range expedition | The sira claims that groups around Duma were robbing travellers/caravans and gathering to attack Medina. About one thousand troops advanced by night and hid by day; when the inhabitants scattered, some livestock was seized and the force returned without a major battle. This was Medina’s first major projection of power far to the north. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Dumat al-Jandal section; Ghazwa list. |
| 30 | Shawwal–Dhu al-Qa’da 5 AH March/April 627 approx. |
Battle of the Trench / al-Ahzab | Quraysh, Ghatafan, and allied confederates; Medina | Defence | A trench was dug across Medina’s exposed northern side against a combined force of about ten thousand; the Muslim force numbered about three thousand. The siege lasted several weeks, but a full assault could not be mounted beyond limited duels and exchanges of arrows. Nu’aym ibn Mas’ud’s deception, mutual distrust, cold winds, and supply problems contributed to the coalition’s withdrawal. Evidence: HighSources: Qur’an 33:9–27; Ibn Hisham, Trench section. |
| 31 | Dhu al-Qa’da 5 AH April/May 627 approx. |
Siege of Banu Qurayza and Killing of the Men | Banu Qurayza of Medina | Siege/Collective punishment | The tribe’s fortifications were besieged for about twenty-five nights on accusations of breaking the pact and assisting the confederates during the Trench siege. After surrender, their former Aws ally Sa’d ibn Mu’adh ruled that the fighting men be killed, the women and children taken captive, and the property divided. Sahih al-Bukhari confirms the wording of the ruling; Sunan Abi Dawud contains an eyewitness report of puberty signs being examined to determine killing or captivity. Totals such as 600–700 or 800–900 come from Ibn Ishaq and later sira literature; sahih hadith gives no specific total. Core event: High; numbers: MediumSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4121; Sunan Abi Dawud 4404; IslamQA; Islamweb. |
| 32 | Dhu al-Hijja 5/6 AH approx. 627 approx. |
Killing of Abu Rafi’/Sallam ibn Abi al-Huqayq | Jewish leader of Khaybar | Targeted killing | After the Trench, a Khazraj group led by Abdullah ibn Atik entered the fortress and killed Abu Rafi’ in his home. Sahih al-Bukhari gives a direct account of opening the lock, identifying his voice in a dark room, striking him repeatedly, and finally driving the sword point into his abdomen. The event is not from 3 AH/before Uhud; in Ibn Hisham’s sequence it follows Banu Qurayza. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4039; Ibn Hisham, “Killing of Sallam ibn Abi al-Huqayq.” |
| 33 | Jumada al-Ula 6 AH August/September 627 approx. |
Ghazwa of Banu Lihyan | Banu Lihyan of Hudhayl | Retaliatory | About two years after the killing of the Muslim party at al-Raji, Muhammad secretly set out with about 200 men. Banu Lihyan fled into the mountains and no direct battle occurred. The force advanced as far as Usfan near Mecca to demonstrate its presence. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Banu Lihyan section; IslamQA ghazwa list. |
| 34 | 6 AH (shortly before Khaybar) 627/628 approx. |
Dhu Qarad/al-Ghaba Expedition | Uyayna ibn Hisn and Ghatafan raiders | Pursuit | After Medina’s milch camels were raided, a shepherd killed, and a woman abducted, Salama ibn al-Akwa’ began the pursuit alone, shooting arrows; cavalry and Muhammad later joined. Several men were killed and some camels recovered; the abducted woman escaped and returned by herself. It is therefore incorrect to classify this as an offensive expedition. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih Muslim 1807; Sahih al-Bukhari, Maghazi; Ibn Hisham, Dhu Qarad section. |
| 35 | Sha’ban 5 or 6 AH — disputed 627/628 approx. |
Banu Mustaliq / al-Muraysi Expedition | Banu Mustaliq; well of al-Muraysi | Surprise attack | According to Sahih al-Bukhari and Muslim, the tribe was attacked while inattentive and watering its livestock; some fighters were killed and women and children captured. Juwayriyya bint al-Harith was among the captives and later married Muhammad. The sira says the tribe had been gathering for war; the sahih report confirms the surprise character of the attack. Ibn Ishaq dates it to 6 AH, while others give 5 AH. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 2541; Sahih Muslim 1730a. |
| 36 | Muharram 6 AH approx. | Muhammad ibn Maslama’s Sariyya to al-Qurata | al-Qurata branch of Banu Bakr/Banu Kilab | Night raid | About thirty cavalrymen were sent to the al-Qurata area of Najd. Maghazi sources report a night raid in which several people were killed, camels and goats seized, and Thumama ibn Uthal captured on the return route; Sahih al-Bukhari establishes the episode in which Thumama was tied to a pillar of the mosque and later released. Captivity: High; expedition details: MediumSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4372; Ibn Sa’d, sariyya section. |
| 37 | Rabi al-Akhir 6 AH approx. | Muhammad ibn Maslama’s Party to Dhu al-Qassa | Banu Tha’laba; Dhu al-Qassa | Party attacked | A ten-man reconnaissance party was attacked at night while sleeping by roughly one hundred men; nine were killed, while Muhammad ibn Maslama survived by pretending to be dead despite his wounds. An earlier version of the list had classified this as a Muslim attack; the preserved narrative instead centres on an ambush of the small dispatched party. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, sariyya list in vol. 2; Shamela. |
| 38 | Rabi al-Akhir 6 AH approx. | Abu Ubayda’s Counter-Expedition to Dhu al-Qassa | Banu Tha’laba | Counter-expedition | After nine members of the previous party were killed, about forty men were sent under Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah. The opponents withdrew into the mountains; maghazi sources mention one captive/conversion to Islam and the seizure of some livestock. Evidence: MediumSource: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, sariyya section. |
| 39 | Rabi al-Awwal 6 AH approx. | Ukasha ibn al-Mihsan’s Sariyya to al-Ghamr | Banu Asad; al-Ghamr | Raid/Seizure of property | A group of about forty men went to the target area, but the inhabitants fled. Sira lists report that 200 camels were brought back to Medina; no direct fighting is reported. The sources do not directly state that the purpose was to “impoverish the tribe”; the demonstrable facts are an expedition to the target area and seizure of livestock. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat; al-Tabari, Tarikh; Shamela: Tarikh al-Tabari. |
| 40 | Rabi al-Akhir 6 AH approx. | Zayd ibn Haritha’s Sariyya to al-Jumum | Banu Sulaym; al-Jumum at Marr al-Zahran | Raid | Using information supplied by a local woman, the force reached the camp of Banu Sulaym and reportedly captured several people and livestock. The woman and her husband were released; these details come from Ibn Sa’d’s maghazi tradition rather than sahih hadith. Evidence: Medium/LowSource: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, Zayd’s sariyyas. |
| 41 | Jumada al-Ula 6 AH September/October 627 approx. |
Zayd ibn Haritha’s Sariyya to al-‘Is | Qurayshi caravan of Abu al-‘As ibn al-Rabi’ | Caravan attack | About 170 cavalrymen intercepted a caravan returning from Syria and seized its goods and several people. When Muhammad’s daughter Zaynab granted protection to her husband Abu al-‘As, Muhammad asked the Companions to return the property; they returned everything. Abu al-‘As settled accounts with the owners in Mecca, accepted Islam, and then came to Medina. Evidence: MediumSources: Islamweb: Zayd’s sariyya and Abu al-‘As; Ibn Hisham. |
| 42 | Jumada al-Akhira 6 AH approx. | Zayd ibn Haritha’s Sariyya to al-Taraf | Banu Tha’laba; Nakhl/al-Taraf | Raid | About fifteen men went into Banu Tha’laba territory. The target group fled, believing that a larger force had arrived; Ibn Sa’d’s account mentions the seizure of about twenty camels and a four-day stay. The earlier list’s “Banu Tha’laba attack 1” has been matched to this specific expedition. Evidence: Medium/LowSource: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, vol. 2. |
| 43 | Jumada al-Akhira 6 AH approx. | Zayd ibn Haritha’s Hisma Expedition | Judham tribe; Hisma | Counter-raid | In response to the looting of Dihya al-Kalbi’s trading party, a force of about 500 under Zayd raided Judham and seized people and livestock. When some Judham leaders produced a letter of safe-conduct from Muhammad, the captives and property were ordered returned. The episode is therefore both a violent retaliatory strike and an example of later restitution. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Sa’d; al-Waqidi, Maghazi. |
| 44 | Rajab 6 AH approx. | Zayd ibn Haritha’s Wadi al-Qura Expedition | Group associated with Banu Fazara | Expedition; Muslim party defeated | While on a trading journey or military expedition, Zayd’s party was attacked; several Muslims were killed and Zayd returned alive but badly wounded. He later swore revenge against Banu Fazara. This was not the post-Khaybar siege of Wadi al-Qura; the two are separate events. Evidence: MediumSource: Ibn Hisham: Banu Fazara and Umm Qirfa section. |
| 45 | Sha’ban 6 AH approx. | Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf’s Sariyya to Dumat al-Jandal | Christian population of the Kalb tribe | Religious-political pressure | A report states that before setting out with about 700 men, the force was instructed to call the population to Islam for three days and to fight if they refused. The local leader al-Asbagh ibn Amr accepted Islam; Abd al-Rahman married his daughter Tumadir. No major battle is reported. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, “Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf to Dumat al-Jandal”; Shamela contents. |
| 46 | Sha’ban 6 AH approx. | Ali ibn Abi Talib’s Fadak/Banu Sa’d Expedition | Banu Sa’d ibn Bakr; area near Fadak | Pre-emptive raid | About 100 men were sent on intelligence that Banu Sa’d were gathering people to aid the Jews of Khaybar. When the camp was found empty, conventional accounts report the seizure of 500 camels and 2,000 goats. These numbers come from the Ibn Sa’d/al-Waqidi tradition and are not found in sahih hadith. Evidence: Medium/LowSource: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, vol. 2. |
| 47 | Ramadan 6 AH approx. | Banu Fazara and the Umm Qirfa Incident | Wadi al-Qura; Banu Fazara | Retaliatory | After men of Banu Fazara attacked Zayd’s trading party, seized its goods, and seriously wounded him, he returned after recovering with a retaliatory force. In the Ibn Ishaq–Ibn Hisham account, members of Banu Fazara were killed in the fighting; the tribal leader Umm Qirfa—Fatima bint Rabi’a ibn Badr—was captured with her daughter. Zayd ordered Qays ibn al-Musahhar to kill her, and she was killed brutally. Al-Tabari, Ibn Sa’d, and later sira/commentary traditions state the method explicitly: her two legs were tied to two horses or camels and driven in opposite directions until her body was torn apart. In Fath al-Bari, Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani, while enumerating seven sariyyas of Zayd, mentions together this Banu Fazara expedition, the killing of Umm Qirfa, the report that she was tied to the tails of two horses and torn apart, and the capture of her beautiful daughter; he then says that Sahih Muslim contains “part of it” in the hadith of Salama ibn al-Akwa’. That Sahih Muslim report describes a dawn surprise attack on Banu Fazara, killing and captivity, the capture of a Fazari woman in a leather garment and her beautiful daughter, the daughter being given to Salama as booty, and later being sent to Mecca at Muhammad’s request in exchange for Muslim prisoners. Muslim’s report does not name the mother or describe the method of killing, and it names Abu Bakr as the field commander; but later commentators identify the woman as Umm Qirfa and Ibn Hajar connects the Sahih Muslim material to Zayd’s Umm Qirfa expedition. Dismissing the dismemberment report as “fabricated” or “unproven” merely on the basis of modern fatwa-site claims therefore suppresses the historical works, hadith commentaries, and mutually supporting narrative traditions in which it is preserved. Expedition, captivity, and the daughter being taken as booty: sahih; killing and dismemberment of Umm Qirfa: well preserved in early sira/historySources: Shongshoy: Source-integrated analysis; Ibn Hisham: Capture and killing of Umm Qirfa; Fath al-Bari, 7/570; Sahih Muslim 1755; Ibn Hisham, Shamela. |
| 48 | Shawwal 6 AH approx. | al-Yusayr/Usayr ibn Rizam Expedition | Khaybari leader and his companions | Lured to negotiations and killed | After Abu Rafi’, Usayr was accused of rallying Ghatafan against Medina. A party of about thirty under Abdullah ibn Rawaha sought to bring him to Medina by offering him the governorship of Khaybar. On the journey, a clash broke out in a narrative involving an attempt to reach for a weapon/fear of betrayal, and Usayr along with roughly thirty Jews was killed; one Muslim was wounded. The core framework of inducement by safe negotiations followed by killing en route is sira-based. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, “Ghazwat Abdullah ibn Rawaha li-Qatl al-Yusayr”; Shamela contents. |
| 49 | Shawwal 6 AH approx. | Punishment of Ukl–Urayna | Eight men accused of apostasy, murder, and camel theft | Judicial reprisal | This was not a military attack on a tribe. Eight sick men had been sent to the grazing grounds to drink the milk/urine of state camels; the sahih reports accuse them of killing the shepherd, gouging/mutilating him, driving off the camels, and abandoning Islam. Kurz ibn Jabir’s party captured them; their hands and feet were cut off on opposite sides, heated irons were applied to their eyes, and they were left to die without water. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 6802; Sahih Muslim 1671a. |
| 50 | Dhu al-Qa’da 6 AH March 628 approx. |
Hudaybiyya Expedition and Treaty | Mecca; Quraysh | Armed pilgrimage/Treaty | About 1,400 followers travelled with sacrificial animals intending to perform umra; no intention of war was declared, although they carried the traveller’s customary sword. Quraysh blocked entry. A rumour that Uthman had been killed led to the Pledge of Ridwan. The resulting treaty provided for ten years of peace, return that year, umra the following year, and the return of Meccans who fled to the Muslims under specified conditions. Surat al-Fath calls it a “clear victory.” Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 2731–2732; Surat al-Fath; Ibn Hisham, Hudaybiyya section. |
| 51 | Muharram 7 AH May/June 628 approx. |
Khaybar Expedition | Jewish fortresses of Khaybar | Siege and conquest | After Hudaybiyya, the army reached the fortified settlement at night and began military operations at dawn; Sahih al-Bukhari describes farmers emerging with spades and baskets and becoming alarmed upon seeing the force. Through successive sieges the forts were taken, fighters were killed, and women and children captured. Safiyya bint Huyayy was among the captives; Muhammad later freed and married her. The claim that “all the men were killed” is incorrect: Jewish cultivators were allowed to remain on the land under an agreement to hand over half the produce, although Muslim authorities retained the right to expel them. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4197; Bukhari 2720; Ibn Hisham, 2/328. |
| 52 | Muharram 7 AH | Fadak Agreement | Jewish settlement of Fadak | Agreement under military pressure | After news of Khaybar’s fall, the people of Fadak concluded a peaceful settlement without battle in exchange for half the land/produce. Because no cavalry had taken part in a battle there, Fadak’s share was treated as fay’ under Muhammad’s personal administrative control, a point that later became important in inheritance disputes. Evidence: High/MediumSources: Ibn Hisham: Khaybar and Fadak section; Qur’an 59:6–7. |
| 53 | Safar 7 AH approx. | Siege of Wadi al-Qura | Jewish/Arab settlements of Wadi al-Qura | Siege | The settlement was besieged on the return from Khaybar; after several days of exchanges of arrows and individual combat, it surrendered. Land and date orchards came under Muslim control, although cultivators were retained on the land in return for a share of the produce. This was separate from the defeat of Zayd’s force at Wadi al-Qura in 6 AH. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Sa’d and al-Tabari; Tarikh al-Tabari, Shamela. |
| 54 | 7 AH | Tayma Agreement | Jewish settlement of Tayma | Tax agreement | After Khaybar, Fadak, and Wadi al-Qura, the people of Tayma accepted a jizya/security agreement without military fighting. The chain of settlements in the northern Hijaz thus came under Medina’s political and economic authority. Evidence: MediumSources: Abu Ubayd, Kitab al-Amwal; al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan. |
| 55 | 7 AH approx. | Ibn Abi al-Awja’s Sariyya to Banu Sulaym | Banu Sulaym | Submission/Call to Islam | About fifty men were sent to call the tribe to Islam. When the tribesmen rejected the call and attacked, most of the Muslims were killed and the commander returned wounded. This was not a successful looting expedition but a failed armed mission to expand Medina’s allegiance. Evidence: Medium/LowSource: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, sariyya section. |
| 56 | Jumada al-Ula 8 AH September 629 approx. |
Battle of Mu’ta | Byzantine-Ghassanid frontier; Mu’ta | Punitive frontier expedition | According to the sira, about 3,000 troops were sent after al-Harith ibn Umayr, an envoy to the ruler of Busra, was killed by the Ghassanid official Shurahbil. Zayd, Ja’far, and Abdullah ibn Rawaha were killed in succession; Khalid ibn al-Walid assumed command and withdrew the army. Conventional figures of 100,000–200,000 enemy troops may be later sira exaggerations; there is no reliable contemporary count. Core battle: High; numbers: LowSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4262; Ibn Hisham, Mu’ta section; Ghazwa list. |
| 57 | Jumada al-Akhira 8 AH October 629 approx. |
Sariyya of Dhat al-Salasil | Bali, Udhra, and Balqayn branches of Quda’a | Pre-emptive frontier expedition | About 300 men under Amr ibn al-As were sent after reports that northern tribes were gathering against Medina; another 200 under Abu Ubayda later joined them. The opposing force dispersed; there is no reliable report of a major battle or extensive plunder. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Dhat al-Salasil section; Abu Dawud 334. |
| 58 | Rajab 8 AH approx. | al-Khabt / Sayf al-Bahr Expedition | Red Sea coast; direction of a Qurayshi caravan | Caravan-oriented expedition | About 300 men under Abu Ubayda were sent toward the coast. When food ran out they ate fallen leaves, hence the name “al-Khabt”; later they survived for about a month on a huge dead ambergris whale found on the shore. No actual attack on a caravan or battle is reported. It was therefore a caravan-oriented but conflict-free expedition, not “continuous looting.” Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4361; Sahih Muslim 1935. |
| 59 | Ramadan 8 AH December 629/January 630 approx. |
Diversionary Sariyya to Batn Idam | Idam valley; Amir ibn al-Adbat | Covert movement | To conceal the true direction of the Mecca operation, a small party under Abu Qatada was sent toward Idam. On the way, Amir ibn al-Adbat offered the greeting of peace, but Muhallim ibn Jaththama killed him out of an old hostility and took his property. Qur’an 4:94—the verse forbidding believers from saying “you are not a believer” to one who offers peace—is associated with this incident. Evidence: High/MediumSources: Qur’an 4:94; Ibn Hisham, Batn Idam section. |
| 60 | Ramadan 8 AH January 630 approx. |
Conquest of Mecca | Mecca and Quraysh | Occupation of a city | After Banu Bakr, allies of Quraysh, attacked Khuza’a, who were protected by the Hudaybiyya pact, a force of about ten thousand secretly advanced toward Mecca. Abu Sufyan was made to publicize guarantees of safety in order to secure surrender. The general instruction was not to fight those who did not resist; limited clashes on Khalid’s route left several people dead. About 360 idols in the Ka’ba were removed/destroyed, Qurayshi political authority ended, and Islamic control was established. Evidence: HighSources: IslamQA: Conquest of Mecca; Ibn Hisham, Fath section; Sahih al-Bukhari 4287. |
| 61 | Ramadan 8 AH | Destruction of the Shrines of al-Uzza, Manat, and Suwa’ | Nakhla, al-Mushallal, and Ruhat | Destruction of religious sites | After the conquest of Mecca, reports state that Khalid ibn al-Walid was sent to destroy al-Uzza, Sa’d ibn Zayd to destroy Manat, and Amr ibn al-As to destroy Suwa’. These were regional cult centres of major Arabian deities. Alongside the destruction of the idols in the Ka’ba, these operations indicate a central policy of eliminating the visible institutions of religious pluralism. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, “Sending Khalid to destroy al-Uzza”; Shamela contents. |
| 62 | Shawwal 8 AH approx. | Banu Jadhima Killings | Banu Jadhima; area near Yalamlam | Commander’s unlawful killings | Khalid was sent to call the tribe to Islam. Because they said “saba’na” rather than “aslamna,” Khalid killed some people and took others captive, then ordered each soldier to kill his own prisoner. Ibn Umar and others refused. When Muhammad learned of the incident, he twice declared, “I am free from what Khalid has done,” and sent Ali to pay blood money and compensation. It is therefore incorrect to call this a massacre ordered by Muhammad; it was a killing carried out by his appointed commander and publicly repudiated by him. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 7189; Ibn Hisham, Banu Jadhima section. |
| 63 | 10 Shawwal 8 AH February 630 approx. |
Battle of Hunayn | Hawazin, Thaqif, and allies | Pre-emptive confrontation/Defence | After the fall of Mecca, Hawazin and Thaqif under Malik ibn Awf gathered first against the Muslims and brought their families and livestock. When about 12,000 Muslims entered Hunayn, concealed archers launched a surprise attack and initially scattered them; the Muslims regrouped and won. Conventional figures give roughly 6,000 women and children captured, 24,000 camels, 40,000 sheep, and a large quantity of silver. When a Hawazin delegation later accepted Islam and asked for the captives back, most captives were returned, but not the property. Evidence: High; figures from sira sourcesSources: Qur’an 9:25–27; Islamweb; Sahih al-Bukhari 4318. |
| 64 | Shawwal 8 AH | Expedition of Awtas | Retreating section of Hawazin | Pursuit | After Hunayn, a force under Abu Amir al-Ash’ari pursued the retreating enemy at Awtas. Abu Amir was killed and Abu Musa assumed command. Sahih Muslim reports concerning intercourse with female war captives, captivity, and ‘azl (coitus interruptus) are connected to this campaign and are important for understanding the human consequences of the war. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4323; Sahih Muslim 1456. |
| 65 | Shawwal–Dhu al-Qa’da 8 AH | Siege of Ta’if | Thaqif; city of Ta’if | Siege | After Hunayn, Thaqif withdrew into the fortified city of Ta’if, which was besieged for about fifteen to twenty days. Reports mention the use of a catapult and covered mobile siege equipment; an order to cut grapevines was later halted after an appeal. The fortress was not captured at that time and the siege was lifted. Thaqif sent a delegation the following year and accepted Islam, so the claim that they “submitted during the siege” is incorrect. Core siege: High; technical details: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Ta’if section; IslamQA: Catapult. |
| 66 | Safar 9 AH approx. | Qutba ibn Amir’s Sariyya against Khath’am/Tabala | Khath’am; Tabala | Night raid | About twenty men were sent, taking turns riding ten camels. Ibn Sa’d’s list reports casualties on both sides in a dawn/night attack and the seizure of camels and goats. The September 630 date in the earlier version was unreliable; in Hijri sequence the event belongs before Tabuk. Evidence: Medium/LowSource: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, sariyya of Qutba ibn Amir. |
| 67 | Muharram 9 AH approx. | Uyayna ibn Hisn’s Sariyya against Banu Tamim | al-Anbar branch of Banu Tamim | Expedition over tax collection | After a group of Banu Tamim obstructed zakat collectors from Banu Khuza’a, about fifty cavalrymen were sent. A night raid resulted in men, women, and children being taken captive and brought to Medina; later a Banu Tamim delegation came, and after negotiations and a contest in poetry and oratory the captives were released. The conventional figures of 11 men, 21 women, and 30 children depend on maghazi sources. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Banu Tamim delegation and Uyayna’s expedition; Shamela contents. |
| 68 | Rabi al-Awwal 9 AH approx. | al-Dahhak ibn Sufyan’s Sariyya against Banu Kilab | Banu Kilab | Call to Islam/Conflict | The party called Banu Kilab to accept Islam; when they refused and fighting followed, they were defeated. There is no direct source stating that livestock seizure was the sole objective; the declared structure of the mission was political-religious submission. Evidence: Medium/LowSource: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, vol. 2. |
| 69 | Rabi al-Akhir 9 AH approx. | Ali’s Expedition against Banu Tayy and Destruction of al-Fuls | Banu Tayy; region of Hatim al-Ta’i | Raid/Temple destruction | Reports describe a dawn attack by about 150 men, the destruction of the al-Fuls sanctuary, and the capture/seizure of women, children, and livestock. Safana, daughter of Hatim, was among the captives; after identifying herself and describing her father’s virtues, Muhammad released her and provided assistance for her journey. Her brother Adi later came and accepted Islam. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Adi ibn Hatim section; Ibn Sa’d, vol. 2. |
| 70 | Rajab 9 AH October 630 approx. |
Ghazwa of Tabuk | Byzantine frontier and northern Arabia | Massive projection of force | After reports of a possible Byzantine/Arab allied attack, a force of about 30,000 marched to Tabuk in severe heat and scarcity of food. No Byzantine army appeared and no battle occurred. The force stayed about twenty days, demonstrated Medina’s presence on the northern frontier, concluded tax/security agreements with local rulers, and returned. Many verses of Surat al-Tawba address participation, donations, absence, and the hypocrites in connection with the campaign. Evidence: HighSources: Qur’an 9:38–106; Ibn Hisham, Tabuk section; IslamQA summary. |
| 71 | Rajab 9 AH | Khalid’s Expedition to Dumat al-Jandal | Christian ruler Ukaydir ibn Abd al-Malik | Capture/Jizya agreement | Khalid was sent from Tabuk with about 420 cavalrymen. The sira states that Ukaydir was captured while outside the fortress hunting at night and that his brother was killed while resisting. Ukaydir was brought to Muhammad and released under a jizya/allegiance agreement. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham and al-Tabari, Tabuk section; Shamela. |
| 72 | Rajab 9 AH | Tax Agreements with Ayla, Jarba, and Adhruh | Christian/Jewish settlements of northwestern Arabia | Jizya/Security agreements | While Muhammad was at Tabuk, Yuhanna ibn Ru’ba of Ayla and representatives of Jarba and Adhruh accepted specified taxes/jizya in exchange for security and rights of movement. Without a major battle, military presence created a structure of regional tax dependence. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Tabuk agreements; Abu Ubayd, al-Amwal. |
| 73 | Rajab 9 AH, on the return from Tabuk | Demolition and Burning of Masjid al-Dirar | Opposition mosque near Quba | Religious-political suppression | Qur’an 9:107–110 describes a mosque built for harm, disbelief, division, and as a base for an earlier enemy. On the return from Tabuk, the sira says Muhammad sent Malik ibn Dukhshum and Ma’n ibn Adi to demolish/burn the structure. This was not a battle, but it was an instance of a religious site being destroyed under military-political authority. Qur’anic accusation: High; destruction details: MediumSources: Qur’an 9:107–110; Ibn Hisham, Masjid al-Dirar section. |
| 74 | Ramadan 9 AH | Destruction of the al-Lat Temple | Ta’if; Thaqif | Post-surrender destruction | Several months after the siege of Ta’if, a delegation from Thaqif came to accept Islam. They requested conditions including leaving al-Lat intact for three years and exemption from prayer, but these were rejected. Abu Sufyan and al-Mughira ibn Shu’ba were sent to demolish the temple of al-Lat; women of Thaqif reportedly mourned. This was not the immediate result of the siege but a condition of the tribe’s later political submission. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Thaqif delegation section; Abu Dawud 3026. |
| 75 | 9/10 AH | Debate and Agreement with the Christians of Najran | Najran | Theological pressure/Jizya | This was not literally a “military expedition against Najran.” A Christian delegation came to Medina and debated the nature of Jesus; they declined the mutual imprecation proposed in Qur’an 3:61. They later accepted an agreement involving specified payments in cloth/silver-equivalent and other obligations in exchange for security in practising their religion. In a separate event, Khalid was sent to Banu al-Harith ibn Ka’b. Core encounter: High/MediumSources: Qur’an 3:59–64; Ibn Hisham: Najran delegation. |
| 76 | Rabi al-Akhir/Jumada al-Ula 10 AH approx. | Khalid’s Mission to Banu al-Harith ibn Ka’b | Banu al-Harith in the Najran region | Ultimatum/Allegiance | Muhammad instructed Khalid to invite them to Islam for three days: if they accepted, he was to accept them; if they refused, he was to fight. They accepted Islam without battle. Khalid taught them the religion and returned to Medina with a delegation. The formula “Islam or war” is more accurately attached to this specific tribal mission than to the general agreement with all Christians of Najran. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, “Conversion of Banu al-Harith ibn Ka’b”; Shamela contents. |
| 77 | Ramadan 10 AH approx. | Ali’s Yemen/Madhhij Expedition | Madhhij and Yemeni tribes | War after invitation | After Khalid’s earlier effort failed to achieve the desired result, Ali was sent with about 300 cavalrymen. Ali sent a written invitation; when one section attacked, a clash followed in which about twenty were killed—the conventional sira figure. They later surrendered/accepted Islam; booty was divided and one fifth set aside. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat; Ibn Hisham, Ali’s Yemen expedition. |
| 78 | 10 AH approx. | Conversion of the Hamdan Tribe | Hamdan in Yemen | Invitation/Allegiance | According to Ibn Ishaq, Hamdan accepted Islam on the same day after Ali read Muhammad’s letter to them. There is no specific report here of fighting, killing, or forced taxation. Instead of the earlier conclusion that they were “compelled by military and ideological pressure,” the demonstrable fact is collective conversion and political allegiance in the presence of an armed representative. Evidence: MediumSources: Ibn Hisham, Hamdan delegation/conversion section; Shamela contents. |
| 79 | 10 or 11 AH — date uncertain | Destruction of the Dhu al-Khalasa Temple | Bajila, Khath’am, and Banu Qahafa; near Tabala | Temple destruction/Conflict | Muhammad sent Jarir ibn Abdullah with 150 Ahmas cavalrymen to destroy Dhu al-Khalasa, known as the “Yemeni Ka’ba.” In Sahih al-Bukhari, Jarir reports that they demolished/burned the shrine and fought those who resisted; Muhammad invoked blessing five times for the Ahmas cavalry. Specific casualty numbers occur in later histories, not in the sahih hadith. Evidence: HighSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4355; Bukhari 4356–4357. |
| 80 | Safar 11 AH May 632 approx. |
Army of Usama ibn Zayd | Ubna/al-Balqa; Byzantine-Ghassanid frontier | Reprisal/Frontier expedition | The young Usama was given command of a large force to avenge the deaths of Zayd and others at Mu’ta and reassert power on the frontier. Because of Muhammad’s illness the army remained at al-Jurf; after Muhammad’s death, Abu Bakr dispatched it. This was therefore the final army ordered by Muhammad, but it did not reach its target during his lifetime. Evidence: High/MediumSources: Sahih al-Bukhari 4250; Ibn Hisham, army of Usama section; Shamela contents. |
Conclusions That Follow Directly from This Timeline
- The main strategy of the first two years was armed pressure on Quraysh’s trade routes. Hamza, Ubayda, Kharrar, Waddan, Buwwat, Ushayra, Nakhla, and Badr were not isolated episodes; they formed a developing economic-military conflict. Safwan/Badr al-Ula, however, was a counter-pursuit after livestock had been raided from Medina.
- Neither “all wars were defensive” nor “all wars were aggressive” fits the sources. Uhud, the Trench, and Dhu Qarad were direct defence or pursuit; Nakhla, the beginning of Badr, Qarada, Khaybar, al-‘Is, several tribal raids, and temple destructions were initiated operations. Some campaigns were pre-emptive strikes based on intelligence, some retaliatory, and some demonstrations of force without fighting.
- Caravans were legitimate targets in the military economy described by the sira itself. “Civilian” is a modern category; seventh-century Meccan caravans simultaneously carried tribal wealth, war financing, armed guards, and political power. Nevertheless, seizure of wealth was an objective at Nakhla and at the beginning of Badr, and that fact cannot be concealed.
- There are established examples of targeted killings. The killings of Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf and Abu Rafi’ are in Sahih al-Bukhari; the Usayr episode is in early sira. But the stories of Asma bint Marwan and Abu Afak are not sahih—they are weak maghazi reports. It is wrong to decorate strong evidence with weak stories, just as it is wrong to use the weakness of some reports to deny the strong ones.
- Captivity, slavery, and distribution of property were structural outcomes of many victories. Direct evidence exists for the capture of women and children and the distribution of property as booty in Banu Mustaliq, Banu Qurayza, Khaybar, Hunayn/Awtas, and multiple sariyyas. Later release or return of captives in some cases does not erase the initial captivity.
- The core event of the Banu Qurayza mass killing is established by strong evidence, but the total number is not. The killing of fighting-age males and the captivity of women and children are in Sahih al-Bukhari; Abu Dawud preserves the report of puberty examination. The range of 600–900 comes from sira/history, while sahih hadith gives no specific total.
- Dismissing the killing of Umm Qirfa through modern isnad objections distorts the source corpus. Ibn Ishaq–Ibn Hisham preserves Umm Qirfa’s capture, Zayd’s order, and her brutal killing in his retaliatory expedition; al-Tabari, Ibn Sa’d, and sira/commentary works preserve the method of tying her between two horses/camels and tearing her apart. Ibn Hajar gives the same material in Fath al-Bari and identifies Salama ibn al-Akwa’s hadith in Sahih Muslim as a partial account of the event. Muslim’s hadith confirms the surprise attack on Fazara, killing and captivity, the capture of a mother and beautiful daughter, the daughter being given as booty with sexual access assumed, and her later use in prisoner exchange. The fact that the hadith omits the method of killing is not contrary evidence against the method preserved in sira and historical sources.
- After the conquest of Mecca, religious homogenization became an overt state policy. The sequence of destroying the idols of the Ka’ba and the shrines of al-Uzza, Manat, Suwa’, al-Fuls, al-Lat, and Dhu al-Khalasa eliminated visible institutions of local polytheistic worship. Some destructions followed surrender; others involved armed resistance and killing.
- Jizya and shares of agricultural production were economic forms of imperial expansion. Half the crops at Khaybar, the Fadak arrangement, and the tax/security agreements at Tayma, Ayla, Jarba, Adhruh, and Dumat al-Jandal created a regular revenue base for Medina either without battle or after military pressure.
- The acts of commanders and Muhammad’s own orders are not always identical. His initial repudiation of fighting in the sacred month at Nakhla, his declaration of dissociation from Khalid’s killings at Banu Jadhima and payment of compensation, and the return of property after the Hisma expedition are important for assigning responsibility accurately.
Main Online Sources and Reading Guide
- al-Maktaba al-Shamela: Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-Nabawiyya — full Arabic text with stable chapter-level links.
- Islamweb: Ibn Hisham’s Sira — searchable Arabic edition of the same primary work.
- Islamweb: Ghazwas and Sariyyas before Badr — concise arrangement of the early caravan-related expeditions.
- IslamQA: Number of Ghazwas — differences among totals such as 19/21/26/27 and Ibn Ishaq’s list.
- Sahih al-Bukhari: Kitab al-Maghazi — strong reports on Ka’b, Abu Rafi’, Qurayza, Khaybar, Hunayn, and other events.
- IslamQA: Banu Qurayza — documentation of the killing, captivity, and puberty examination together with a religious defence.
- Islamweb: Extended Sira Account of Banu Qurayza.
- IslamQA: Isnad Criticism of the Asma bint Marwan Story.
- Shongshoy: Zayd’s Killing of Umm Qirfa — source-integrated discussion using Sahih Muslim, commentary on Muslim, Fath al-Bari, Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum, and Ibn Ishaq.
- Islamweb: Fath al-Bari, Expeditions of Zayd ibn Haritha — Ibn Hajar’s statement about Umm Qirfa being tied to two horses and torn apart, the capture of her beautiful daughter, and his recognition that Sahih Muslim preserves part of the episode.
- Sahih Muslim 1755 — surprise attack on Banu Fazara, killing and captivity; capture of a Fazari woman and her beautiful daughter; the daughter being given to Salama and later sent in exchange for Muslim prisoners.
- Islamweb: Common al-Waqidi Account of the Killing of Asma — useful for seeing what the story claims, not as proof of authenticity.
- Shamela: Tarikh al-Tabari — full Arabic text of the later history; quotation by al-Tabari does not automatically make a report sahih, and its chain must be assessed separately.
- Shamela: Ibn Sa’d, al-Tabaqat al-Kubra — a major source for smaller sariyyas, troop numbers, captives, and booty.
- Qur’an 2:217, Surah 8, 33:9–27, Surah 48, 59:2–7, 9:25–29, 9:38–110 — relevant Qur’anic passages.